“The Method of Science, The Aim of Religion”
A Systematic Model for the Academic Study of
Modern Western Occultism
Alfred Vitale
Western occultism is rarely approached by scholars of Religious Studies except when it is anecdotally placed within the rubric of the New Age Movement, New Religious Movements, or Esoteric Studies. Depending upon the researcher, it is also synonymously attached to other, sometimes loaded labels like Satanism and Neo-Paganism. Available scholarship tends towards three basic approaches. The first is to ignore any notion of “modern” Western occultism and instead consider all “occultism” as a monolithic entity that has remained essentially the same and de-emphasizes the input from historical, social, economic or aesthetic factors. And where these factors are considered at all, Western occultism is reduced to a historically marginal reaction to a Christian hegemony. The second direction of academic study comes from the more emic perspective of the practitioners of modern Western occultism itself. A characteristic of this tradition is its text-driven, literature-intensive program. Despite this, the drawback to such an emic perspective is that there is little room for objectivity and when there is, criticism of the work will still fall back to the emic/etic argument that has become such a thorn in the side of Religious studies.
An alternative approach is one that is not taken by Esotericists or by Occultists. In this perspective, we distinguish a “modern” Western occultism, acknowledged as different from other occultisms, and not based on the emic self-proclamations of occultists or on the etic perspectives of theologians. This is a perspective that works precisely because it steps outside the emic/etic boundaries and sees a system; a text-based tradition, with abundant articulations of its own meaning and interpretation, and a systematic program to manage religious or esoteric information gleaned through an ever increasing corpus of primary texts. It is in these primary texts that we can meet on the bridge between the practitioner and the academic; these texts provide what could be seen as a momentary zone of negotiation. Because modern Western occultism is explicitly didactic and expository, information-oriented approaches are not only possible, but also quite germane.
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Why ìModernî Western Occultism?
Within Esoteric Studies, Occultism is broadly defined historically as a movement emerging in the late 18th or early 19th century in Europe, with antecedents reaching back into the 15th century or earlier, and continuing into the present day. This study will focus on the form of western occultism that started to take shape after about 1870 and crystallized a short time later in the “modern” period throughout Europe and the United States.
It is most likely the case that the factors influencing this modern phase of Western occultism are the same factors that spurred Modernism. Modernism was reflected in the re-evaluation of contexts for mysticism and magic and breadth of possibilities for experiencing transcendence, a new relationship with text, and belief that there was the potential for one to be elevated in spiritual or intellectual matters without participating in an institutionalized religious structure.
Culturally, some of the most important changes in the modern era enhanced the occult process, such as increased access to global cultures (especially those in the “East”) through new text translations and colonial accounts, the impact of the bourgeoning fields of psychiatry, anthropology, comparative religious studies and sociology, and the integration of what might be considered transcendent technologies (such as the telephone, automobile, airplane, radio, and more recent information technologies) into the realm of practical life. These technologies suggest that it is possible to transcend limitations of geography and culture through reproducible means, an important structural premise for modern Western occultism.
By technologies, we shall refer to the definition given by Hannay and McGinn:
Öthe basic function of technology is the expansion of the realm of practical human possibility. Technology as a perennial form of human activity arose because, unaided by technics, human capacities are quite limitedÖ[1]
This consideration of technology as being an extension of humanity, rather than an antithesis, opened the door for a new relationship to technology. Such a relationship was an axial moment for the modern era. New inventions, especially those that revolutionized daily life, rapidly propelled the west into technocentric social organization and customs. Robert Wuthnow adds to this by considering technology as being ìparticularly well qualified to serve as a basis for legitimating myths.[2]î
Sociologist James Beckford sums up these affects on modern spirituality in his examination of religion in the age of modernism and of post-modernism:
The stress on the inter-connectedness of all living things, the heightened awareness of 'the global circumstance'...the strong sense of evolutionary equilibrium and change, the belief in the possibility of personal and social transformation, and the affirmation of noninstrumental rationalities are all redolent of a revised "Enlightenment project' with the emphasis more firmly placed on the human scale and spiritual implications of science, politics and State administration.[3]
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These technologically-rooted notions were instrumental not just in the development of occultism, but in the growth and fashioning of the significant artistic movements in the Modern era, such as Cubism, Futurism, and Suprematism and the major architectural styles epitomizing modernity. The technological shifts, both in production and in the products themselves, after the Industrial Revolution became the rationale for systemic aesthetic revolutions:
For Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier, no less than for Frederick Taylor or Henry Ford, the values of order, regularity, system, and control constituted modernism. Inspired by the creative possibilities of new technologies such as electricity, automobiles, and mass-produced steel and glass, avant-garde artists and architects argued that modern forms were an authentic expression of the new machine age, and a necessary agent for progressive social change.[4]
Indeed, the hallmarks of the modern era were those advances that generated both a sense of awe and an element of human possibility. Alfred Russell Wallace, in The Wonderful Century, asserts:
Many of these advances have already led to developments of the most startling kind, giving us such marvelous powers, and such extensions of our normal senses, as would have been incredible, and almost unthinkable, even to our greatest men of science a hundred years ago.[5]î
It is in this environment that the attitudes of modern Western occultists were grown, and throughout the primary source literature there is a recurring, and paramount theme of magic as a form of scientific experimentation.
Perhaps the most influential, and certainly most prolific, of all modern Western ccultists was Aleister Crowley, to whom we will return later in this paper and whose many interests and social activities would place him squarely in the center of Modernism. As we will see later, other noted occultists, such as the poet William Butler Yeats[6] and his associates in the seminal occult group of late Victorian England, the Order of the Golden Dawn, could also be placed within Modernism's artistic and social milieu.
If we were to pinpoint specific indicators marking the turning point from pre-modern to modern Western occultism (heretofore abbreviated as MWO), we might choose the founding of groups such as the Theosophy Society in 1875, the Order of the Golden Dawn in 1888, the Hermetic Brotherhood of Luxor in 1870, or perhaps the Ordo Templi Orientis in 1895[7]. Or, perhaps, we could note when significant texts were written, such as the works of Eliphas Levi, A.E. Waite, Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, or Aleister Crowley. We could even speculate based on changes in philosophical outlook in the west, such those brought about by the influence of Hindu Tantra[8] or Vedanta[9]. It is more prudent, and perhaps more accurate, to simply accept that the formative years of MWO occurred between 1875 and 1895. It is during these formative years that occultism takes its distinct, modern shape. By the first years of the 20th century, MWO had become its own tradition. In 1904, Aleister Crowley declared that the New Aeon has arrived[10] and his declaration is both astute and prescient. It is coincidence, or perhaps synchronicity, that 1904 is also the year for which one day in the life of James Joyce was later transformed into Ulysses — a book that is the hallmark of Modernism. But although Modernism provides clues to the development of this modern Western occult tradition, it is useful to dive deeper into its distinguishing features in order to set up an approach for scholarship. The following sections will deal with some of the more important issues regarding MWO.
ìThe Method of Science; The Aim of Religionî
We have located modern Western occultism in its temporal dimension, but from here we must move on to its ideological dimension. Wouter Hanegraaff has written that the end of the 19th century produced a "secularization of religion" and "secularization of esotericism[11]." However, such focus on reaction to pervading religious values and traditions overlooks the fact that MWO was a recontextualization of religious ideas based largely on contemporary developments in science rather than dissatisfaction with mainstream religions. Leaning towards a scientific approach, MWO developed its own quasi-empirical presuppositions about religious experience and esoteric traditions based on comparative research and pragmatic experimentation. One result of this approach was the notion that if it is possible to grade religions in terms of their qualitative values, as if for example Hinduism presented a more practically refined system of religion than Christianity, it could be possible that another religious system (i.e., Western occultism) could be even more refined and pragmatically superior. And if religion can be refined, it might be engineered through improvement in the workings of its components; much like machinery improves not only by design, but also by construction. Thus, MWO suggests an industrial identity to religious experience and found a justification for treating religions as technological systems that could be engineered for improvement. The literature of MWO, in one sense, can act as instruction manuals.
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The modern means of production and “transcendence” set the tone for the western occultist’s belief that they could obtain the means to produce transcendence without having to “reinvent the wheel”; there were now shortcuts that could be gained from the pre-packaged practices and philosophies now presented to them. Religions became machines without patent, ready to be taken apart and reassembled with enhancements. This view of religious experience, with its dichotomy of useful and the non-useful, was ultimately framed around technology, rather than on theological semantics, divine transmission or cultural relativity. This cannot be underestimated in importance because it highlights a very common motive of the occult process: the quest for efficient magical techniques without regards to any particular theology. Magic, in the MWO paradigm, consists of efficient and continuously refined techniques for creating, managing or otherwise participating in religious activities whether to achieve an enhancement in the mundane sphere or to communicate with something “other,” or anything in between. The practice of magic is the creative utilization of the technology, not the results of its use.
The Role of Text in Modern Western Occultism
It is no small irony that modern Western occultism has overturned the idea that “occult” is hidden from public view, and has revised it to mean that ordinary reality overlays hidden meanings and essences that can be learned with proper instruction. The instructions are no longer “occult” in the old sense. A salient feature of modern Western occultism is a reliance on texts to provide the means for a practitioner to teach him or herself. In other words, one can successfully practice occultism without ever having to come into contact with a living teacher. This is accomplished not merely through instructional texts, but through a schematization based on already-established esoteric principles. The schema reflects the comparison of symbolic representations of religious experiences across traditions. Of course, this approach may mean that some representations become misaligned with inaccurate correspondences. However, as modern Western occultism is text-driven, constant re-examination of correspondences increases the likelihood that such errors will be corrected. As scholarship in religion and history refines what we know of religion, the modern Western occult tradition can adjust its schema accordingly. Thus, what was considered true in the days of Frazer’s Golden Bough may no longer be considered valid in MWO due to current research and perspectives on comparative mythology. Because the adaptations of modern Western occultism are often stimulated by changes in quantity and quality of available information, it continues and thrives because of its relationship with text. It is an interesting feature of occult evolution that it has developed such a dependency on text; in this era of rapid information exchange and global access, modern Western occultism has found fertile soil in which to spread. Established occult organizations have grown in numbers thanks to the Internet, and new occult groups sprout regularly[12].
NeoPaganism is often associated with occultism, despite a rather significant difference in how they each frame the relationship between the individual and the natural world. Occultism postulates relationships to the natural world that tend towards dualism. In the corpus of modern Western occult rituals, there is little or no celebration of human's inclusion in the natural world. Instead, nature consists of forces to be mastered and managed. NeoPaganism, which includes the large body of Wiccan traditions, in contrast, strives towards the recognition of humanity as part of the natural world and efforts towards harmony with the cycles of nature. Nature does not consist of forces to be mastered; it consists of possibilities for partnerships and co-operation, within a framework of reverence. Accordingly, there is greater emphasis on communing with nature, celebrating seasonal changes, and addressing environmental concerns. NeoPaganism is directed at seamless integration into a natural universe. Modern Western occultism is directed at delineating the dichotomy in order to maintain a more homocentric universe. In general, owing to the overlaps between practicing occultists and NeoPagans, it is understandable to assume the two traditions are more closely related. NeoPaganism, however, is not the focus of this paper.
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Associating MWO with the New Age movement is an elegant example the type of troublesome ambiguity that comes about in the absence of solid research. The conception of “New Age” was thrust forward through the writings of two major occult figures, H.P. Blavatsky and Aleister Crowley (in his religious philosophy of a “New Aeon”), propelled by the adjacent influences provided by alternative health movements (including Yoga) and the New Thought/Transcendentalist thinkers. Yet the holistic health-oriented emphasis of the precursors to the modern New Age movement did not intersect well with magically-oriented occultism. Movements like Spiritualism and Mesmerism may have had a strong impact on the New Age, but they had far less effect on modern Western occultism[13].
By the 1960s, the foundations of the modern conception of a "New Age" movement were clearly in place[14]. However, while modern Western occultism has grown more distinct as it has aged, the New Age tends towards partnerships and gradual absorption into larger traditions and a further separation from occultism. A survey of contemporary New Age literature shows a proliferation of philosophical or poetic narratives from established monotheistic religions as well as Buddhism or Hinduism[15]. In fact, Hanegraaff even places the large movement of NeoPaganism within the rubric of New Age[16]. What you wonít find in any great abundance, though, is literature that is explicitly or implicitly ìoccult.î Yet the occult has, to some scholars, become subsumed by the New Age movement. For instance, noted scholar on New Religious Movements, J.Gordon Melton, states:
The New Age in effect transformed the whole occult world. It also gave occultism an entirely new and positive image in society and so did away with popular notions tying it to Satanism and black magic. It is significant that we no longer talk about the occult, but about the New Age.[17] (Italics added)
Hanegraaff's paragraph on occultism in Religions in the Modern World is almost completely devoted to the precursors to the New Age movements, such as the aforementioned Spiritualism and Mesmerism, and simply addresses occultism today as:
Relying on an essentially nineteenth-century framework of ideas and beliefs, this cultic milieu has continued and further developed during the twentieth-century, eventually to provide the foundation after the Second World War for the emergence of the New Age movement[18].
But as scholarly studies of modern Western occultism increase, we may find that it is more accurate to consider the New Age movement as a subset of modern Western occultism than the reverse. Temporally speaking, this is logical. Hanegraaff defines New Age as “…a movement which emerged in the second half of the 1970s, came to full development in the 1980s, and is still with us at the time of this writing[19].” And even if one were to reposition its origins into the 1960s counterculture in the US and England, as is sometimes done, there still would be a sizeable distance between it and the beginning of modern Western occultism. There is certainly enough separation to refute Melton’s assertion about occultism and New Age.
Conflating Satanism
It may be of importance to continue our account of modern Western occultism with a brief look at the overly-prescribed label of "Satanism." To begin, we must understand that the expanded range of representations and practices of MWO, coupled with a relaxation of traditional theological restrictions, naturally provides acceptance of a wider and wider range of practitioners with varying interests. As a result of this expanding inclusiveness, MWO generates a more variegated population of occultists, resulting in even more difficulty for researchers wishing to find a manageable categorization. It is not surprising that even without an overt theological bias, it is often the case that MWO is passed over as Satanic. Much of this comes from the fact that there are, in fact, groups calling themselves Satanists and that the magical ritual work of Aleister Crowley is often a common denominator of their practices. Let us be clear, though, that there is a distinct stream of MWO that led towards the Satanic occultism that began in the mid-1960s with Anton Szandor LaVey's "Church of Satan." It may be more accurate to see the rise of Satanism as a post-modern phenomenon, propelled by its publicity and entertainment value more than theology. Characterized by a high-degree of theatricality, the Church of Satan quickly sprung a small number of offshoots including the Temple of Set and the Process Church. All of these groups garnered more publicity than the majority of occult groups, and this contributed greatly to the conflation of occultism as Satanism. Very little has been done to change this in a larger sense, but good scholarship may be the first step to establishing understanding of MWO and its growing streams.
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Supplementing the presuppositions above is the self-perpetuated notion that occultists are separated from the normal population by virtue of what they do, as well as what they know. The noetic component forms the basis of practice, but is not an end in itself. Since modern religious experience has fortified empowerment in the domain of the individual, the development of the individual's capacity to create religious experience is a fundamental concern. In accordance with this, definitions of magic tended to revolve around the power of the human "Will" once modern Western occultism had freed itself from previous esoteric limitations[20]. An occult tradition to which we will refer extensively throughout this paper will be the "Thelemic" tradition of Aleister Crowley, which takes shape axiomatically around the statements: "Do What Thou Wilt Shall be the Whole of the Law" and its companion, "Love is the Law, Love under Will" and philosophically came into being in 1904.
Modern Western Occultism and Esoteric Studies
Arthur Versluis states that among the recognized areas for esoteric study are included "nineteenth, twentieth, and twenty-first century occult movements.[21]" Wouter Hanegraaff writes that historically, western esotericism includes "various occultist and related developments during the 19th and 20th centuries.[22]"
However, the relationship between esotericism and occultism has been mis-stated because it naturally assumes occultism to be a subset of esotericism. This misplacement forces occultism to be therefore subject to the same approach as other esoteric traditions. The primary methodology is to seek defining qualities to recognize what is esoteric in religious traditions. Antoine Faivre's "Criteriologies[23]," referred to regularly among scholars of Esoteric Studies, serves as the basis for just such an approach. But while the criteriologies function extremely well to establish nominal recognition of something "esoteric," they are unable to provide a useful categorization for modern Western occultism. Simply put, esoteric traditions are self-contained systems for maintaining their particular traditional path, evolving more strategies to preserve their integrity in the face of changing social conditions. As self-contained systems, defining them based on objective criteria has the potential for success. But as we will see, the maintenance of esoteric data integrity is one point where modern Western occultism and esotericism diverge. For now, we will note that the two are clearly different when examined separately and in ways that clarify their distinguishing features. But with the exception of work by a few French scholars, there is in fact more distance and distinction between the occult and esoteric traditions than one would conclude after reading the scant academic literature on occultism. Accordingly, Antoine Faivre suggests that
Occultism, as a group of practices, is to be distinguished from esotericism, which is, roughly speaking, the theory that makes these practices possible.[24]
Additionally, Jean-Pierre Laurant declares assuredly that "a separation of occultism from esotericism followed the separation of church from state in France in 1905" and that "esoteric thought progressively abandoned the trappings of the occult.[25]"
However, the relationship between esotericism and occultism has been mis-stated because it naturally assumes occultism to be a subset of Esotericism. This misplacement forces occultism to be therefore subject to the same approach as other esoteric traditions. The primary methodology is to seek defining qualities to recognize what is esoteric in religious traditions. Antoine Faivre's "Criteriologies[26]," referred to regularly among scholars of Esoteric Studies, serves as the basis for just such an approach. But while the criteriologies function extremely well to establish nominal recognition of something "esoteric," they are unable to provide a useful categorization for modern Western occultism. Simply put, esoteric traditions are self-contained systems for maintaining their particular traditional path, evolving more strategies to preserve their integrity in the face of changing social conditions. As self-contained systems, defining them based on objective criteria has the potential for success. But as we will see, the maintenance of esoteric data integrity is one point where modern Western occultism and esotericism diverge. For now, we will note that the two are clearly different when examined separately and in ways that clarify their distinguishing features. But with the exception of work by a few French scholars, there is in fact more distance and distinction between the occult and esoteric traditions than one would conclude after reading the scant academic literature on occultism. Accordingly, Antoine Faivre suggests that
Occultism, as a group of practices, is to be distinguished from esotericism, which is, roughly speaking, the theory that makes these practices possible.[27]
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Additionally, Jean-Pierre Laurant declares assuredly that "a separation of occultism from esotericism followed the separation of church from state in France in 1905" and that "esoteric thought progressively abandoned the trappings of the occult.[28]"
To adjust the view of the subordinance of occultism to esotericism, we will clarify the reasons for the divergence of these two subjects and re-state this relationship as one of kinship, but not hierarchy. This subordinate notion of occultism as a subset of esotericism has been accepted easily, and where definitions are made, occultism appears to be a base mimicry of more sublime theosophies; sporadically associated with "New Age," Black Magic/Satanism, or the paranormal. Within Esoteric Studies, occultism is like a bastard child wandering around the family reunion; everyone nominally acknowledges him as part of the family but nobody wants to talk to him.
At any college library, one will find books on occultism still in the section for abnormal psychology, rather than religious studies or even cultural studies. If MWO is truly is a part of Esoteric Studies, it needs to be reclaimed and presented with appropriate academic rigor, rather than brushing it aside with a nomenclature of deviance and abnormality. Further complicating the matter is that whatís chosen to represent occultism varies from interpreter to interpreter, even in the absence of theological bias. Yet among the literature of occultism itself, the representations are quite well-defined. This is one of the many reasons that careful study of Modern Western Occultism will require significant examination of consistently overlooked primary source material. Otherwise, misguided analyses will ensure that its paradoxically closeted presence among esoteric studies will remain, despite its ever-increasing presence in the western world.
As we saw from the presuppositions discussed earlier, it is clear that Modern Western Occultism moved away from its genitive esoteric philosophies and into an existence all its own. The endurance of Modern Western Occultism into the present and its regular reference by social or religious groups (though often negative) should be sufficient to warrant further research of a serious nature. In the information-rich environment of the present day, Modern Western Occultism thrives like it has never before. Yet there has not been a corresponding increase in its study among scholars of religion and esoteric studies. To point out one of the major areas of neglect, the infamous occultist Aleister Crowley has rarely been the focus of academic research in religion despite the fact that, as Hugh Urban recently wrote, Crowley:
Östands out as one of those remarkably enigmatic characters who has had a tremendous impact on contemporary new religious movements, esotericism and occultism, even as he has been almost entirely ignored by academic scholarship.[29]
It might be, however, that we need to redirect our focus away from all the emphasis on criteria as a whole. General statements have the purpose of allowing ease of association and a common language for study. But in the case of esoteric studies, it seems that such applications of commonality might be imposing limitations on modality-specific approaches towards esoteric traditions. By "modality-specific," we suggest here that the similarities between esoteric traditions and the occult are actually less useful for study than their differences. Because their differences may lie in their respective modes of self-representation, each should be distinguished and approached as it is represented within its definition. Modern Western Occultism has built-in elements which facilitate an almost empathetic approach: allowance for individual interpretation and implementation, an emphasis on text rather than person-to-person learning, and the ability for any desired religious elements to be synthesized within the individual's occult practice. For these reasons there lies the potential to study occultism with an unusual degree of flexibility through its primary texts.
Tracing the changes in primary texts, like those written by Crowley, will help us to illustrate how consideration of esoteric traditions shifted in the milieu of Modern Western Occultism from being complete systems in themselves to being the subject of comparative schematization. Such research may pave the way for approaching these vast, untapped areas for religious scholarship that have been largely ignored. With this in mind, this paper proposes that esoteric studies has overlooked MWO, in part, because of its inability to conform neatly with the methodological criteria of esoteric studies. Accordingly, we must examine how and why this methodology is insufficient for studying Modern Western Occultism. Further along, we will propose an applicable working model for the understanding of Modern Western Occultism that may guide scholars of esoteric studies towards more detailed and rigorous research.
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The Occult View of Esoteric Traditions
From the perspective of Modern Western Occultism, any and all esoteric traditions will contribute to the pool of information in which magical ritual work and philosophy is based. This perspective strips the particular esoteric traditions into sets of information, each containing modes of representation at the core of occult practice. And while it is true that MWO maintains the esoteric practice of correspondence, it does so across entire esoteric systems rather than as a localized lexicon for associations within an esoteric tradition. Sometimes the metaphor of ìmagical alphabetî is applied to correspondences in MWO. In other words, each esoteric tradition contains elements similar enough to those in other esoteric traditions to be corresponded together. The notion of alphabet is appropriate, especially in light of the structural tables of correspondences that characterize MWO. This tendency to correspond is certainly a product of earlier religious traditions, though prior attempts at correspondences usually remained within the traditions themselves and did little cross-system correspondence. Among esoteric traditions, correspondence "between all the parts of the visible and invisible universe[30]" is an important characteristic. Traditionally, such correspondences remained within the frame of the tradition itself. For instance, a correspondence in the Qabalistic tradition would relate to the potency in the Hebrew alphabet, not other alphabets.
As we will see, these tables of cross-system correspondences are not a closed set. As more information accrues, and more traditions are described in detail, more is added to the pool of ìcorrespondableî elements. Modern Western Occultism, consequently, maintains a long and detailed textual tradition for the analysis of such ìesoteric data.î
The incorporation of these elements is not done in a haphazard fashion. There is, at least superficially, an attempt at truly scientific analysis of esoteric data. The word ìsuperficialî is used here only because of the subjectivity of the elements being incorporated and because of the problems with interpreting the results. However, methodologically, MWO has a scientific ethic: it keeps copious notes on its research and attempts to repeat the results of its experiments through careful monitoring of the integrity of experimental conditions. It is more likely, though, that MWO would scarcely be considered scientific because of the immeasurability of its results[31]. This lack of objective measures may be another reason MWO has been avoided or dismissed. This is a safe way to approach the material, of course, as esotericists are most often removed from the traditions themselves and may not be able to make heads-or-tails of it. Thus, Versluis is quite correct in calling for sympathetic empiricism. The suggestion further hints that the quality of sympathy is an important enough quality so as to characterize a method of study itself. He states,
...it is important to balance on the one hand the virtues of scholarship that strives to achieve a standard of objectivity, and on the other hand the virtues of an approach that seeks to sympathetically understand one's subject, to understand it from the inside out, so to speak.[32]
He then goes on to propose that scholars have an appreciation of "their subject's metaphysical and cosmological self-understanding.[33]" However, there is little evidence that that approach has actually been taken by scholars the field of esoteric studies.
With the caveat that this is only a working model, we can proceed to an examination of what Modern Western Occultism does with esoteric information. This approach should make it considerably easier for scholars to traverse the largely uncharted terrain of Modern Western Occultism.
A Model for Understanding Modern Western Occultismís Treatment of Esoteric Data
It might seem a bold proposition to begin by saying that the practices of Modern Western Occultism have been primarily based on techniques of non-western religious traditions, such as Yoga and Sufism, while most of the information-content comes from western esoteric traditions. Yet, this may indeed be the case. On an obvious level it makes sense: how many western occultists know Sanskrit, Hindi, Urdu, Tamil, Tibetan or Arabic? As it was, the 19th century fetish regarding the ancient Egyptians led to rather biased or sloppy translations of hieroglyphics in the interest of furthering connections to ancient wisdom. In the absence of reliable translations and available instruction in eastern languages, the early incorporation of eastern elements combined whatever could be found in popular literature[34] and later, by the interaction with eastern teachers in eastern settings[35]. Today, MWO practice is dominated by reference to Yogic techniques and has foregone all but the most essential practices of the earlier western esoteric traditions, such as the banishing rituals developed by the Golden Dawn, invocation rituals based on early grimoires like the Lesser Key of Solomon, and newer techniques created in recent years which take into account theories of cognition and psychotherapeutic technologies.
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To create this model, we have to realize what it is we are modeling. To do so requires an act of reverse engineering, forcing us to approach the tradition currently ìas isî in order to see how the process unfolds and manages religious data. The working model can be broken down into six stages, based on the management of esoteric information: Identification, Deconstruction, Extrication, Re-Integration, Proselytization, and Data Integrity. Appendix 1 provides a graphic illustration of this model.
1: Identification of Pure Esoteric Sets
MWO relies on esoteric data that has already been tested and traditionalized. At the end of the nineteenth-century, the proliferation of books with examinations of global religious traditions influenced the delineation of religious traditions for comparison[36]. In addition, western esoteric traditions, such as Tarot, astrology, Qabalah, and Rosicrucianism were spilling over more and more into public discourse, literature and religion. In fact, fantasy literature during the modern period had much affect on the consideration of esotericism and occultism by the public. It was in this milieu that the early occultists operated. As works were produced detailing the mysteries of the Tarot and Qabalah, these subjects became the subject of critical analysis by early occultists and as such, became more understood and consequently, more refined in their presentation. Texts became refined by eliminating apologetics or proselytization for those traditions and instead, focused on its history and philosophy. This is important because such an approach became the standard for MWO. As new traditions are identified and explored, the same tactic of analysis and refinement occurs. In the end, MWO accrues a virtual library of research works on esoteric traditions within its framework. The occultist can draw on these referential works to gain an understanding of the tradition holistically before approaching them for use. In Crowleyís influential Magick in Theory and Practice, he outlines the readings required for magickal training in his system[37]. Among the many titles required, he includes Eastern primary texts such as The Tao Teh King, The Upanishads, The Bhagavad-Gita, The Siva Samhita, The Hatha Yoga Pradipika, The I Ching, and the Dhammapada. Despite the fact that Crowley was not creating a specifically Eastern system of magick, his incorporation of such material shows the early emphasis of MWO on a well-rounded, but inclusive, set of primary sources. Also listed are William Jamesí Varieties of Religious Experience, the Bible, the Kabbala Denudata, the Pistis Sophia, The Golden Bough, and works by Kant, Hume, Pythagoras and Cicero. With the exception of his own books, he lists few secondary sources on esoteric and religious traditions.
2: Deconstruction into functional parts
Religious traditions, primarily esoteric traditions, were thus recognized for their distinct qualities in order that correspondences could be made. In other words, to create valid comparisons, essentialization was necessary. One should no longer be required to learn all the nuances of an entire system, with its potentially fuzzy boundaries, when systems could be isolated as distinct and reconfigured palatably and neatly. The logical next step, then, was for esoteric traditions to be broken down into functional parts in order to be compared more accurately. By "functional" parts we are referring to the less ambiguous elements of esoteric systems. In other words, functional parts are the essentialized data whose meanings could be relied upon consistently. These parts could be purely informative, such as the presence of the god Jupiter to bring fortune or the recognition that the Hebrew letter aleph relates to an ox and also to air, but they could also be completely practical, such as the hermetic method for constructing a magic circle or techniques to create an amulet. Because systems are capable of being deconstructed into comparable parts through recognition of specific correspondences, traditions are like technological systems with similar configurations. These configurations, essentialized and recognized, became the functional parts of that tradition. Deconstructed into parts, esoteric data became the components of a grand lexicography. The preoccupation with adding to this lexicography is still evident today, expanding much like encyclopedias expand with new information. The occultist can peruse these lexicons as if they were catalogs, updated regularly to incorporate new products. Because new data can always be incorporated, additions of Voudou gods, Australian totems, or Aztec deities would be fair game for inclusion. In fact, the association of Voudou with MWO has already been made in a number of books[38], and the Aztec deities have already been incorporated in at least one article in recent years[39].
3: Extrication of functional parts from system
Since correspondences can be made between systems, it is assumed that the functional parts concept is valid. If there were indeed similar elements among many different systems, then those elements are the essential features of all esoteric systems. Of course, the parallels with comparative mythologies of the late 19th and early 20th centuries are clear.
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Because religious systems can be considered collections of functional parts, the notion that these parts could be removed and mixed together with other parts was natural. Thus, the functional parts no longer relied on their inclusion within a system to be valid. As whole systems became compared with regards to their correspondences, the whole system became subordinated to its parts. With parts at the forefront, esoteric traditions were like markets for those shopping to find the best functional part for their needs. No longer would these parts need to be sold with all the rest of the parts for that system; they were unique products. The occultist can take careful note of their particular needs and identify the parts they will need for their own ends.
4: Re-Integration of parts into a unique, individualized system
Collecting these functional parts for practical use became the craft of the modern Western Occultist. Of these stages, this is where the laboratory work is done and where experimentation with functional parts takes place. As more functional parts become available, through the previous stages, the larger the variety of experiments can be performed. Individuals are empowered to incorporate into their practice those things that resonate for them. At this stage, the integration of generic magical practices with specifically chosen elements creates recipes for achieving particular ends, sometimes in ways for which the individual parts were never intended. With practice and experimentation, the occultist can now determine which of these parts work best and in what contexts. It becomes the lifelong vocation of occultists to continually refine their own practices. Defining themselves by what they do, people working with MWO are given an almost infinite amount of materials with which to work.
It is also at this stage where the bulk of instructional texts are created. Individual occultists can, if they feel that they've worked out successful methods to achieve their aims, crystallize their systems into texts. These written instructions on particular Magical systems, such as the well-known works of Crowley or the Golden Dawn or the lesser known works of Franz Bardon[40] or Stephen Flowers[41], are regularly studied and worked with by occultists. The functional parts of esoteric systems can be recontextualized in MWO, but even the new texts are subject to the same process so that functional parts of occult systems are also isolated.
5: Proselytization of system to gain adherents
The increase in available texts, coupled with the influence of the charismatic personalities who often wrote them, led to popularization (albeit on a smaller scale than other contemporary religious movements) of particular occult systems so much so that many of them soon accrued organized groups devoted to working more exclusively with that system. This was certainly the case with members of the Order of the Golden Dawn and its later offshoots, because their system was primarily engaged with a specific, practical system. As groups grew, their needs increased and it became important to gain new members. The type of "proselytization," though, was more in the form of published texts, and, in the early days of MWO, advertisements in newspapers and magazines for meetings and lectures on esoteric subjects or occult science. This is still the method by which the Theosophical society, A.M.O.R.C. (Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis ) and other large groups continue to gain new adherents. There is little chance that one will ever find modern western occultists actively recruiting members with anything resembling true proselytization, but the systems themselves acquired adherents through their increased presence and availability. At this stage, the occultist can find identifiable streams of occultism and their attendant groups, practices and philosophical tenets.
6: Data Integrity ñ making the system whole
The formation of MWO "orders" led to the inevitable of organization and membership. How does one gain entrance to the group? What is required of one to remain in the group? What is forbidden to group members? MWO groups address these questions regularly. As membership increases, groups tend to become more delineated by their core principles because for all intents and purposes, these core principles are the most recognizable distinguishing features. The particular occult system becomes a whole set of proscribed practices that are kept as germane and regular as possible. And as members gain identity through the system, they work towards maintaining its integrity. It becomes, in effect, more difficult for such established MWO systems to be as flexible as they once were lest they lose their identifying features. As is the case with more mainstream religious traditions, schisms occur and new systems break off when they feel that the integrity of the tradition is compromised.
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The first four stages in this MWO approach to the esoteric could be seen as a complete process in themselves. The individual can continually re-experiment and re-work his or her own magic system indefinitely, without need for adhering to any one system on its own. These stages can be recursive for a lifetime as they stand. But it is also the case that at this later stage, we can also find a potential for the recursive effect as well, though it is less likely to occur in the context of MWO. Instead, the recursivity is more indicative of a shift towards a transformation into an esoteric set, with its insistence on data integrity and maintenance of tradition. Such a transformation, from cross-cultural data management system to traditionalized maintenance of an integral set of esoteric data, suggests that modern Western Occultism will forge new, but specifically esoteric traditions that will "outgrow" the model itself and be more amenable to esoteric categorization and criteriology instead.
Chaos: The Post-Modern Reaction to Modern Western Occultism
One addendum to this model comes in the form of a stream of MWO that may be evolving out of it and setting the stage for a truly post-modern western occultism. This stream, known as Chaos magic, had its preliminary groundwork laid by occultist and surrealist painter A.O.Spare (1886-1956), but crystallized in the 1970s and served as a valid reaction to the last two stages of our model in particular. Furthermore, it challenges the other stages of the model through data that extend outside religion. Chaos magic, with its inclusion of not only religious data but cultural data (provided by television, comic books, radical psychotherapeutic techniques, synthetic drugs, chaos science, music and cyberculture, to cite a few), could follow the model, but the results of incorporating such non-religious data are currently speculative as Chaos is in its formative stages.
To return now to the modern Western Occult tradition, we will examine some ethnographic accounts and then some primary sources to illustrate how this model engages both an emic and an etic perspective and provides a useful context for analysis.
Some Practitioner Accounts
The process detailed above underscores the pragmatic possibilities inherent in modern Western Occultism, based on the ever-increasing number of elements that can be incorporated into a practice. Accordingly, modern Western Occultists tend towards collections of practices rather than towards one tradition. A survey of five men[42] who consider themselves Occultists, living in different locations in the US (Philadelphia, New Jersey, New Orleans), demonstrates the systems-oriented view of religious practice. These five subjects were asked a series of questions about their religious practice, beliefs and reasons for their activities. The diversity of their answers was not surprising, as MWO espouses a theologically inclusive worldview. Just a brief sampling of responses to the question, ìWhat magickal/religious/other systems do you incorporate into your practice?î can illustrate this point.
John (age: 27) describes the elements of his practice as follows:
Tibetan Buddhism and Bon which I study both in America and in Nepal. Hermetic Egyptian/Greek which I study through the Greek and Demotic Magical Papyri and related materials. European Witchcraft and Cunning arts which I learn through a mixture of Books and personal contacts. American Hoodoo and Rootworking which I learn through personal teachers and some books. Finally modern Ceremonial Magick, which itself draws upon an enormous corpus including the Khabbalah, Tarot, Medieval Magick, Hermeticism, Gnosticism, Neoplatonic philosophy and many other spiritual paths.
The diversity and breadth of Johnís description highlights the inclusiveness of MWO and also shows the increase in possibilities for learning. The process of participation and practice, in Johnís case, lies equally between textual instruction and instruction in person. This response speaks of teachers and texts without giving precedence to one or the other.
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Elvin (age: 31) notes among his practices:
In a term "Gnosticism" - a blanket term for all "wisdom" religious traditions. In my practice this includes Buddhism, Orphism, Pythagoreanism, Chaldean Theurgy, Egyptian demotic magic, Bon Shamanism, Indian Tantra. Any non-dogmatic tradition that lets you think and experience beyond the 'box'. I prefer source material to step by step instructions in the realm of the spiritual and magical.
The emphasis on ìnon-dogmaticî tradition is a notable aspect of MWO and the process outlined, but tends to be framed as a reaction of disenchantment rather than a conscious choice. Hanegraaff writes:
OccultismÖcomprises all attempts by esotericists to come to terms with a disenchanted world or; alternatively, by people in general to make sense of esotericism from the perspective of a disenchanted secular world.[43] (Italics from original)
Yet, such an assertion does not give much room for Occultism to be considered as a conscious choice, based on a well-thought out and rational consideration of spiritual needs. The disenchantment of the world need not be the catalyst for modern Western Occultism.
Andrew (age: 58) elaborates his practice as follows:
I try to incorporate whatever I find which is useful form each and every belief and philosophy I find. To make a list would take months. At core, I am a Thelemite. I am a pantheist. I am a pagan, a shaman, an alchemist. I tap into Voudoo, New Age spirituality. I believe that what some call God misses the mark for me because I see us all (all sentients, not just humans, or animals, or biological life) as being a part of some entirety which stretches throughout time in every branch of alternity. Whether that entity is aware of self, or of all its parts probably varies from instant to instant. Whether that entity care about its composite parts probably also varies. Exactly which religions or philosophies also believe that, I have no clue. If one defines religion as the regulations of god, then I am against all religion. I am in the OTO, Wicca, was initiated into the Golden Dawn, have studied Sufism & Voudoo. I have very strong negative affinity towards Christianity, which I have studied, and Buddhism, which I have not studied. I feel strong affinity to primitive mythology of the fairy tales of Europe, the Arabian Nights tales, Chinese fairy tales, etc. I have studied the European grimoires of the middle ages. For me, mythologies can be written as truth or as fiction. What matters is the tale, not my believe (or the authors' belief) in the reality of what is being written.
Ben (age: 31) simply states:
I have worked with multiple systems/maps in an attempt to categorize my experiences. The ones I have delved into the deepest would be Taoism and Tantric Buddhism, but I have also spent a fair amount of time investigating and working with Sufism, Voudun, Vietnamese shamanism, and various western systems including the Golden Dawn and the OTO.
We can certainly discern some common elements in their replies, but one that stands out is the acknowledging of the diversity of practices without attempting to diminish their tradition of origin. None of the responses imply ownership over the traditions being used, nor do they imply a discrediting of the sources. The responses illustrate the steps in the model: there is an identification of pure sets inherent in the descriptions, there is emphasis on the functional parts, the parts have been freely extrapolated from their sources, and various parts have been reassembled to the unique system of the practitioner. There is even a proselytic element here, in that there are proscribed systems (learned about through proselytic machinations) listed here alongside generic ideas. Thus, whole systems can be formed and entered into use by the practitioner through the process.
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On the subject of textual dependence versus that of a teacher, the responses vary. Andrew emphasizes an autodidactic approach:
While I can readily see the benefit of community within which one interacts, I very strongly feel that being self-taught (thru books, thru experimentation, thru psychedelics, thru sex) is the way to go. Once can usefully connect with teachers to learn specialties (such as meditation, etc) but the main focus of one's life study should (IMO) be self directed, rather than as an apprentice to a particular teacher or tradition. Not to say it is wrong or useless to apprentice oneself for life. Just that all that does is get one to follow in someone else's footsteps. It is far better (again, IMO) to figure out one's own path. No person or trad is, IMO, worth following for life, when one can work to discover one's own path instead. Anything occult can be uncovered by any person without teachers, traditions, or books. However, it is far simpler to discover what others offer without strings (secrecy, fealty to a cult, etc) and then work to incorporate the various threads into a greater whole.
Self-directed teaching necessitates texts, and MWOís reliance on texts based on practical concerns, rather than dogma, stimulate an increase in instructional materials rather than on theological arguments or resting of faith. Andrewís hesitation to ìfollow in someone elseís footstepsî is remedied, of course, by creating oneís own curriculum as our process indicated.
Henry (age: 49) concurs:
I think that one can learn from texts without a physical teacher if the text was explicit and comprehensive. But my experience has been that there are often special keys (visualizations, etc.) that often are not included in books. It's probably best to say you can learn magick without a physical teacher but not without actual practice because some of the learning comes from experiences you have during practice and sometimes keys to refining and elaborating personal practice manifest during practice. Likewise certain texts are illuminated thru experiences in practice.
The texts themselves are not relevant until they are used. As Henry indicates, the teacher is subordinate to praxis.
Still, Elvin adds:
You can learn anything from texts. It's a do-it-yourself world. In fact, in the Buddhist tradition, if you read a text, you are considered to have "received" the teaching from the person who wrote it. It's a valid form of "transmission" of teachings. Oral instruction may be the best way, but it's not the only way !
There is, then, a broad acceptance that text-driven spiritual practices are valid and possible. Furthermore, the text is not necessarily inferior to a physical teaching. For some, as Andrew states, ìbeing self taughtÖis the way to go.î
Primary Sources and Systems
Returning to the texts themselves, and the activities around them, we can easily see that modern Western Occultism makes it possible for any text to become an authoritative primary source. With this model in place, we can observe clear evidence of its various stages by seeing what has been written in the primary texts of modern Western Occultism. The texts (and their related systems) we will survey are being placed in a relatively chronological order, with the reminder that it is not hard and fast chronology, and is subject to overlaps and recurrences.
Formed in 1888 in England, the Order of the Golden Dawn was crucial in the redirecting of esoteric traditions towards an occult system of "ceremonial magic." Among its members were Aleister Crowley, W.B. Yeats, Maude Gonne, Annie Horniman, Florence Farr, Algernon Blackwood, Arthur Machen, A.E. Waite, and S.L. MacGregor Mathers[44]. The esoteric elements of the GD system were centered on Hebrew Qabalah, Tarot, Astrology, Enochiana, Rosicrucianism, Heremeticism and the contemporary fetish of Egyptian deities. At its core, the GD was a teaching-order with a sophisticated ceremonial ritual system and particular magical techniques. In this relatively intact system, maintained as a tradition and resistant to inclusion of other systems, we are introduced to an occultism that is making its first steps towards being truly modern. Though it does rely on the functional parts of esoteric systems, these parts come from a select few traditions.
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What is most remarkable in their original system is their lack of Asian influences; any similarity to Theosophy, founded 13 years earlier, was in its insistence on an order of "Secret Chiefs" who direct the spiritual matters of humans from afar. Dr. William Wynn Westcott, one of the founders of the GD was a friend of H.P.Blavatsky and though her relationship with the early GD was at first, one of concern that it might steal away Theosophists, she became more amiable before her death shortly thereafter in 1891. Blavatsky founded her own esoteric branch of Theosophy possibly influenced by the formation of the Golden Dawn and the general esoteric milieu of London in 1888. The GD itself demonstrated the predictable outcome of having a number of egocentric people in the ranks of a small, but active group: it broke apart by 1903 due to in-fighting and personality clashes, as well as a publicized scandal in which their name was associated[45]. It's legacy, however, was immense. Subsequent reformations of the GD occurred fairly soon after the initial breakup, and there are a number of GD traditions in existence today[46]. Some newer streams of the GD have added Yoga and chakra formulations to their ritual repertoire. What is also noticeable is the fact that one can arrange initiation into the GD through an "astral" ritual, with no need to actually meet any other members in person. This shows us that despite the emphasis on teachings and praxis, it is the still assumed that the texts can provide what is needed to learn how to explore religious experiences.
It is less useful for us to look at the early texts of Mathers or A.E.Waite, as important as they are in the history of the GD and MWO, because they provide little in the way of what is actually done by GD members. It was not until Israel Regardie published the rituals of the GD in 1937 that we can begin to see the practical use of functional parts that have been extricated from esoteric traditions. The rituals were published in two volumes, and have been compiled more recently into one large volume, with an enormous amount of information and instruction. Perhaps more than any other text, Regardie's The Golden Dawn[47] encapsulated most of what was understood by late nineteenth-century western occultists and re-presented it in the context of a serious and rigorous curriculum, which could be undertaken by the individual student without need of an in-person teacher. Regardie, who spent the later years of his life as a Reichian therapist, was not only a member of the GD, he also served as Crowley's personal secretary between 1928 and 1931. His dedication to the ritual system of the Golden Dawn, and his experience with Crowley, gave Regardie firm grounding in MWO and its most influential currents. Regardie writes that in the absence of a true teaching plan, with testing to ensure understanding of the material:
...it remains only for the intelligent student to work out his own study technique or regimen. If he is not astute enough to perceive the practicality or necessity of the above, then quite evidently he is not intelligent enough to deal with the material itself, and it should not be in his possession at all[48].
This supports the possibility that the texts, in themselves, are capable of transmitting the teachings of modern Western Occultism. How would this text be able to accomplish such a task? A look at the information conveyed in the nine books comprising the text shows us how. The first book is about "Basic Knowledge and Practice" and consists of lectures about the Hebrew alphabet and Qabalah, astrology, alchemical symbols, elements, planets, geomancy, tarot attributions (based on the earlier work of Eliphas Levi), the general schema of the GD initiatory grades and simple rituals such as the Lesser Ritual of the Pentagram. The second and third books use the information in Book One as the basis for the detailed rituals of each particular grade in the GD. Book Four explains the crafting of magical tools, their meaning, and expands the simple ritual of the pentagram into more complex workings. Books Five through Nine are almost entirely rooted in extending the functional parts of esoteric systems, including the Enochian magic based on the work of John Dee in the 16th century, to more sophisticated ends than simply religious experience. The resulting text is a veritable encyclopedia of functional parts, and instructions on using them in the proscribed GD way. This curriculum of the GD was laid out by Regardie with such comprehensive detail and depth, it is not surprising that the later GD offshoots all refer extensively to this text for their primary source and that Regardie is a well-respected primary source for MWO.
Dion Fortune, who joined the Holy Order of the Golden Dawn (HOGD) in 1919 but soon formed her own group called the "Fraternity of the Inner Light," wrote a variety of texts further elaborating on the Qabalistic work of S.L. MacGregor Mathers' The Kabalah Unveiled. In 1935, she published The Mystical Qabalah and as well as being an important book for occultists, it gives a clue about the prominence of Eastern (specifically Yoga) influences in the rest of the occult community at this time and the decline of the purely western occult tradition:
Very few students of occultism know anything at all about the fountainhead whence their tradition springs. Many of them do not even know there is a Western Tradition.[49]
She will later refer to Qabalah as the "Yoga of the West" as she talks of the quintessential
adepts of those races whose evolutionary destiny is to conquer the physical plane and evolved a Yoga technique of their own which is adapted to their special problems and peculiar needs.[50]
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The Mystical Qabalah is an elegant reflection of the model described in this paper in a number of ways. First, the text admonishes the reader to learn as much as they can about Qabalah before embarking on its use, even going as far as to practice it exclusively in its holistic sense. It is here that we can see an indication of stage one in our model. She writes,
If we intend to take our occult studies seriously and make of them anything more than desultory light reading, we must choose our system and carry it out faithfully...[51]
Next, it is reasoned that once this has been accomplished, the occultist can
experiment with the methods that have been developed upon other Paths, and build up an eclectic technique and philosophy therefrom.[52]
The consideration of other esoteric paths towards and eclectic technique is quite characteristic of MWO texts, but not in those of pure esoteric systems. Fortune considered herself sufficiently versed in Qabalah to be able to provide valuable teachings in order that it may actually be incorporated with other traditions. Indeed, throughout her exposition on Qabalah, Fortune makes repeated comparison with other paths and their attributions with respect to Qabalah. The Hindu chakra system is often the subject of comparison with the Sephiroth (spheres) on the Qabalistic "Tree of Life." Such comparison reflects their consideration as functional parts by Fortune. Once again, the work of Aleister Crowley is mentioned as a source throughout the text, especially his book Liber 777, to which we shall now turn.
Aleister Crowley's Magickal[53] Systems
The principle sources of our tables have been the philosophers and traditional systems referred to above, as also, among many others, Pietro di Abano, Lilly, Eliphaz Levi, Sir. R. Burton, Swami Vivekananda, the Hindu, Buddhist, and Chinese Classics, the Q'uran and its commentators, the Book of the Dead, and, in particular, original research. The Chinese, Hindu, Buddhist, Moslem and Egyptian systems have never before been brought into line with the Qabalah; the Tarot has never been made public.[54]
As we've seen, modern Western Occultism may be characterized by its scientific approach to the systematization of the religious experiences as explored through comparative studies. A crucial systematization of esoteric information occurred in 1909 after Aleister Crowley published a particular lexicon of useful parts known as Liber 777. In the preface itself, Crowley begins:
"The following is an attempt to systematize alike all the data of mysticism and results of comparative religion.[55]"
The text had enormous importance for MWO because it boldly put forth that "modern methods have enabled us to concentrate the substance of twenty-thousand pages in two score.[56]" The presupposition that such modern methods were more efficient became the basis for Crowleyís work in this text and is shown through the elegant simplicity and neatness of the lexicon. The columns and correspondences are placed in a way that foreshadows modern relational database theory, with a primary key providing the essential anchor for which cross-system correspondences could be made. These he even referred to as the ìKey Scale.î Using the key scale, one could find useful information that could be matched with correspondences in other systems. The keys were numbered 0 through 32 and were arranged in tables with columns numbered by Roman numerals. The grouping of correspondences around a numbered primary key reflects Crowleyís theory of the essential role of numbers in esoteric systems. Numbers act like the primordial essence, and letters correspond as manifestations, as do plants, animals, deities, philosophical ideas, and numerous other features of the universe. To introduce a concrete example, based on 777, one finds that the number ìthreeî corresponds with, among other things, the concept of ìUnderstandingî (binah) on the Tree of Life; the color crimson in one system, black in another; the Egyptian goddesses Isis, Nepthys, and Maat; the Scandinavian goddess Freya; Bhavani (all forms of Sakti) in Hinduism; Cybele or Demeter in Greek mythology; Compassion in Buddhism; the poppy; a pearl; the Yin; the Virgin Mary; Myrrh; Belladonna; Silence; Enoch; Intuition; the Visuddha chakra; Dar al-Jalal (one of the seven heavens of Islam); and finally, Dementia. These are all laid out in a fairly easy to use format. For the occultist, such a work did indeed condense much information into useable parts. Crowleyís aim was to construct a ìmagical alphabet,î with elements that could be combined appropriately into whole concepts or ìformulae.[57]î Alphabets are very efficient by design, and allow for important changes in word meanings based on the substitution of one letter for another. Therefore, having this alphabet provided the diversity desired by the modern western occultists. It was now possible for the occultist to choose which bits of the alphabet could be incorporated or combined with others to create complete concepts to be incorporated into ritual.
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777 was foreshadowed by the earlier work of Eliphas Levi, especially the early chapters of Transcendental Magic, where the 22 cards of the Major Arcana of Tarot were corresponded with other esoteric representations, especially those of Qabalah. Crowley may have believed he had taken Levi a step further when he says, "Eliphaz Levi knew the true attributions but was forbidden to use them.[58]"
The importance of 777 cannot be overstated with regards to modern Western Occultism. It is still a highly referenced text among primary sources, and it is a regular occurrence to see new occult texts emulating or appending 777 in some form. To cite a couple of examples, The Magician's Companion, by Bill Whitcomb and published in 1993, incorporates as many correspondences between esoteric data as might seem possible. The book's jacket makes an elegant summary of the claims of MWO: "Gain access to the great magical systems without apprenticeship to a living master or membership in an initiatory order." Another example of enhancing 777 is more direct. In an article in the AMOOKOS journal, Nuit Isis, C.H. Cattell writes an article "filling in one of the gaps in Liber 777" by incorporating Aztec deities into 777. This says something of note regarding MWO: it is always possible to continue synthesizing more esoteric sets both of the past and of the present.
Systematization: Crowley's Instructions for a ìMagickalî System
ìThe sincere student will discover, behind the symbolic technicalities of this book, a practical method of making himself a Magician.î (Crowley, Book 4: Magick in Theory and Practice, p. 136)
Modern Western Occultism is also characterized by the use of comparative schematization, such as that found in 777, to construct rituals and magical practices. After the lexicons of esoteric data are created, occultists are given the data to develop useful techniques to specific ends. Thus it follows that the esoteric data are incorporated into these useful practices to create an optimal system for magical ritual. Such texts form the bulk of occult writing. Once more, the prolific Crowley provides some of the most important instructional texts since the original work of the Golden Dawn.
Immediately following 777, Crowley produced the two-part Liber ABA: Book 4, divided into a section on ìMysticismî and another on ìMagick (Elementary Theory). As has been stated in other articles on the subject, Crowley called his work ìmagickî in order to distinguish it from the conjuring ìmagicî of stage performers. In 1929, he produced the larger text called Magick in Theory and Practice, which augments Book 4 both in depth and scope. Similarly, collections of his magical diaries and personal correspondences, his autobiography, and many of his smaller texts provide ample comments and addenda to his main texts.
Crowleyís writing clearly indicates confidence in the instructions he provides for occult practice. One common example can be found in his book, Magick Without Tears, in which he writes in a letter to a student of the occult about her concerns about learning Yoga:
To study yoga, you have my Book 4 part 1 and my Eight Lectures on Yoga. Then there is Vivekananda's Raja Yoga and several little-known Hindu writers; these latter are very practical and technical, but one really needs to be a Hindu to make much use of them.[59]
And in another correspondence he adds:
The literature on the subject (Yoga) is so enormous and contains so vast a number of more or less secret documents which circulate from hand to hand, that I believe the best advice I can give anyone is to cut one's cloth very sparingly if one is to make a fitting suit. I do not think I'm going too far if I say that Part I of Book 4 and my Eight Lectures on Yoga form an absolutely sufficient guide to the useful practice of the subject; anything else is almost certain to operate as a distraction.